Assessing The Confucianism On Relationships Cultural Studies Essay

Assessing The Confucianism On Relationships Cultural Studies Essay Confucianism has been the main foundation of traditional thought that is deeply rooted in Chinese society. Confucianism is ethical teachings rather than a religion as described in Western literatures. Confucianism is widely regarded as the behavioral or moral regulations that are mainly concerned with human relationships, social structures, virtuous behavior and work ethics. In Confucianism, rules are specified for the social behavior of every individual, governing the entire range of interpersonal relations within the society. The core virtues of Confucius basic teaching can be extracted as Ren (Humanity), Yi (Righteousness), Li (Propriety), Zhi (Wisdom) and Xin (Faithfulness). According to Confucius, each person had a specific place in society, certain rules to follow and certain duties to fulfill. Confucius hoped that if people knew what was expected of them they would behave accordingly. He, therefore, set up Five Cardinal Relations, in which most people are involved, moreover h e also laid down the principles for each relation. These can be illustrated as follows: Basic Human Relations Principles Sovereign and subject (master and follower) Loyalty and duty Father and son Love and obedience Elder and younger brothers Seniority and modeling subject Husband and wife Obligation and submission Friend and friend Trust Source: Fan, 2000 All of these five, except the last, involve the authority of one person over another. Power and the right to rule belong to superiors over subordinates. Each person has to give obedience and respect to his/her ‘superiors’; the subject to his/her ruler, the wife to her husband, the son to his parents, and the younger brother to the older brother. The ‘superior’, however, owes loving responsibility to the subordinates. These relationships are structured to generate optimal benefits for both parties, and the principles are laid to achieve a harmonious society (Fan, 2000). Among these five basic human relatio ns, three are family relations, which show strong family-orientation in the Chinese society. Such a characteristic when applied to organizational management, leads to the birth of a parternalistic management style in Chinese society (Hsiao, et al., 1990). As China is a high context culture (Hall, 1976) and places much emphasis on Confucianism, relationships within the Chinese society have been explained in terms of harmony, hierarchy, and development of morality and kinship (Shenkar and Ronen, 1987). Defining Guanxi Under the impact of Confucianism, China is a nation whose social relationships are neither individual-based nor society-based, but typically a relationship-based society (Liang, 1974), in which almost everyone tries to maintain Guanxi. Guanxi, which literally means social relationship or social connection, is a prevalent cultural phenomenon that has strong implications for interpersonal and interorganisational dynamics in Chinese society. The concept of Guanxi is enormou sly rich, complex and dynamic (Yang, 2001). In English as well as Chinese, it can be defined at various levels and from different perspectives. Chen and Chen (2004) argue that rather than social networks or interpersonal relationships found in the Western literature, Guanxi should be viewed as an indigenous Chinese construct and should be defined as an informal, particularistic personal connection between two individuals who are bounded by an implicit psychological contract to follow the social norms as maintaining a long-term relationship, mutual commitment, loyalty, and obligation.

Continental Drift Theory Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Continental Drift Theory - Essay Example In the last part of the 20th century, modern investigations have led to the evidence of sea-floor spreading or the diversion of ocean floor from the mod-ocean ridges. Under geometric continental reconstructions evidence, Wegener proposed that the coastline geography of the continents on either side of the Atlantic Ocean have pattern and can be fitted back together like a jigsaw puzzle. Example of which are the coastlines of western Africa and eastern South America (Rogers, 2008, 93). In addition, Wegener reiterated it is the end of the submerged continental shelf that marks the line of the originally-joined continents and not the coastline-fit misconception. Geological match and continuity of structure evidence explained how there are similar rock types, succession of strata or igneous bodies which have unique characteristics were found on either side of the ocean. This evidence was observed in the similarities of the rock strata and geological structures of the Appalachian and Caled onian mountain belts of eastern USA and northwestern Europe, as well as the Precambrian rocks and geological structures similarity observed between South America and Africa (Rogers, 2008, 95). ... The modern evidence gathered during the latter part of the 20th century which has made the continental drift theory acceptable is the sea-floor spreading evidence. Modern geologists had explained the inaccessible ocean floor in Wegener’s theory and discovered striped patterns of magnetic polarities at both sides of the ocean and on mid-ocean ridges (Frisch, Meschede & Blakey, 2011, 3). Scientists and physicists during Wegener’s time rejected his idea because the forces suggested by Wegener are too weak to explain the drift of the continents. Furthermore, the lack of strong mechanism to drive continents across the ocean basins’ questioned the credibility of the Wegener’s continental drift theory, particularly the use of scientific method. During that time, Americans believed that scientific method is empirical, inductive, modest, holding close to the object of study, and is resistant to the impulse of going further (Oreskes, 2003, 11). Derived from the form er description, Americans believed that Wegener breached the scientific method because of drawing out the theory first before gathering evidence. Scientist of today accepted Wegener’s theory but used plates instead to describe the division and pattern of relative movement between regions of the Earth surface because modern physicists discovered the sea-floor spreading and the tectonic cycle (Frisch, Meschede & Blakey, 2011, 3). In addition, the process of scientific method and theory development are further improved. The scientific method starts with a question of the object/topic under investigation. Hypothesis is identified and initial experiment is done. Observation and measurement of the initial experiment took

Indian Philosophy. What Is Indian Philosophy Essay

Indian Philosophy. What Is Indian Philosophy - Essay Example The main consideration is that, the practical drive of Indian Philosophy is motivated by the view that human life is full of suffering. Human beings suffer in their journey to realize actual truth about their life. Despite of many sufferings, Indian philosophy brings into light the importance of worship and meditation to achieve peace and liberty provided by the Supreme Being. Indian philosophy is strongly spiritual and emphasizes the need of realizing the truth about life. The philosophy aims at achieving the knowledge of truth. It helps human beings to attain instinctive vision of reality and perception of truth, which leads to actual realization. According to Datta (571), Indian philosophy is intimately linked with religious facts. For instance, Indians believe on the fact that existence does not come from non-existence. In other words, there is nothing in this world comes out of nothing. There is a supreme being who is sole cause and source of the universes. This contradicts with Descartes who in his philosophy believed that all philosophy do not start with God’s scripture. Descartes believed that all philosophy should start with the argument â€Å"I think I am†. Descartes assumed that existence occur in the essence of being perfect being without believing in the essence of finite thing. This follows that; the existence of human beings should not be compared with God’s existence. Secondly, most of Indian philosophies are derived from Vedas principles. Basically, these principles explore that just as a seed flourishes one time, human beings have all knowledge to become the best. The Vedas principles guide human beings to live in peace with one another and life in reference with the fear of Supreme Being. The principles guide human beings to live a life that is fulfilling in the spiritual realm. Indian philosophy accepts the principles and authority of Veda. Therefore, human beings are unable to seek realization and truth openly and freel y. This contradicts with the Western philosophers who believe in having complete freedom to do and act the way one wishes. Indian philosophy rejects the notion of doing things as per one’s desires and wishes but as per principles that guide human beings to live in harmony with one another. The nature of man depends on the nature of reality and his destiny. The Indian’s philosophy affirms that man is not an animal or plant, but a spiritual and thinking being set to accomplish his dreams and goals for higher purposes. Human beings should strive to live an integrated life that honours the maker. The accepted position in Indian Philosophy provides steps of obtaining truth to life. First, human beings are encouraged to read and hear the truth from a book or a teacher. Secondly, it is crucial to apply what one has heard or read in search for truth. Thirdly, human beings should meditate on the teachings and truth taught in books or by teachers. Indian philosophy values the co ncept of meditation as one that seize and motivates human beings to have a peace of mind and live in peace with another. According to Datta (571), Indian philosophy depends on direct and mystical experience. Indian philosophy is concerned with norms and values that relate to religion. However, western philosophy relates to the notion of science and nature, and in most cases it is concerned with facts. The doctrine or principle of inwardness is a major concern for Indian philosophy. Specifically, Indian philosophy is mainly concerned with the aspect of changing man’s mind rather than changing the world in which human being live. The whole aspect points out on the importance of changing the mindset to succeed and achieve the best in life. Based on this analysis, one would argue that Indian philosophy